ANS:D - all the above.

The transverse reinforcements provided at right angles to the main reinforcement in reinforced concrete elements serve multiple purposes:

1. They distribute the load: Transverse reinforcements, such as stirrups or ties, help distribute the applied loads across the entire cross-section of the concrete element. They prevent the concrete from failing in shear by confining it and enhancing its ability to carry loads.
2. They resist temperature stresses: Transverse reinforcements also help in resisting temperature-induced stresses by providing additional support to the concrete. Temperature changes can cause thermal expansion or contraction in concrete elements, and the transverse reinforcements help in minimizing the effects of these stresses.
3. They resist shrinkage stress: Concrete undergoes shrinkage as it cures, which can result in internal stresses within the element. Transverse reinforcements help in resisting these shrinkage stresses by providing restraint to the concrete and reducing the likelihood of cracking.

• All of the above.