Q1: Toughness of a material is measured by the

ANS:C - universal testing machine.

A Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is a versatile mechanical testing instrument used to evaluate the mechanical properties of materials and components under tension, compression, bending, and other types of loads. It is widely used in various industries, including materials science, manufacturing, construction, aerospace, and automotive. Here's how a Universal Testing Machine works and what it is used for:

1. Components: A UTM typically consists of a sturdy frame or base, a load cell or force sensor, grips or fixtures for holding the specimen, and a control system. The control system allows for precise control of the applied load and the measurement of deformation or displacement.
2. Testing Modes:
   • Tension Testing: In tension testing, the material is subjected to a pulling force to measure its tensile properties, such as ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation.
   • Compression Testing: Compression testing involves applying a compressive force to the material to measure its compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and deformation characteristics under compression.
   • Bending Testing: Bending tests are performed to evaluate the bending strength, flexural modulus, and behavior of materials under bending loads.
   • Shear Testing: Some UTMs are equipped with fixtures for performing shear tests to assess the shear strength and shear modulus of materials.
3. Operation:
   • Before conducting a test, the specimen is prepared according to relevant standards or specifications and placed securely within the grips or fixtures of the UTM.
   • The testing parameters, such as load rate, displacement rate, and test method, are set on the control system.
   • The UTM applies the specified load or displacement to the specimen while simultaneously recording the corresponding response, such as load, deformation, or displacement.
   • Data obtained during the test are typically plotted on a graph to visualize the material's behavior and analyze its mechanical properties.
4. Applications:
   • Material Characterization: UTMs are used to determine the mechanical properties of materials, including metals, plastics, composites, ceramics, and biomaterials.
   • Quality Control: UTMs play a crucial role in quality control processes by ensuring that materials and components meet specified standards and requirements.
   • Research and Development: Researchers use UTMs to study the behavior of materials under different loading conditions and develop new materials and products.
   • Failure Analysis: UTMs are utilized to investigate the causes of material failure and assess the structural integrity of components.